Besides being home to uniquely adapted tigers, the Sundarbans are a source of livelihood for the human population in the region. In this post, Danda and Mukhopadhyay discuss the nature of human-wildlife conflict that arises, and the exacerbating impact of climate change. They detail the measures undertaken to address the challenges, situating these within the wider effort towards tiger conservation in the Sundarbans. 

This post is the second in a three-part series on tiger conservation in India 

Tiger conservation in the Sundarbans is distinct from the rest of India given the geography, the novel habitat, prey base, climate change challenges, and human-wildlife conflict. To understand the challenges involved in tiger conservation in this region, one must consider five important factors. One, the nature of the forest – its vegetation and capacity to support a healthy tiger population. Two, the nature of the tigers itself. Three, the local economy, which makes too many individuals pendent on forests and leads to extraordinarily high human-wildlife conflict. Four, the conservation efforts undertaken by the local authority, and finally, shocks – mostly climate related – that frequently disturb the fine balance among the above four. We look at each of these in detail. 

The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world – with a total area of 10,263 square kilometres (sq. km) – situated across India and Bangladesh in a 40:60 ratio (Figure 1). This eco-sensitive estuarine delta is designated as UNESCO world heritage site¹. Land including exposed sandbars, constitutes 70% of the total area, while the rest is covered with water bodies. On the Indian side, there are 100 deltaic islands, of which 54 islands are variably inhabited totalling about 4.5 million in population (Census, 2011). Most of the remaining islands host tigers. 

Figure 1. Sundarbans eco-region

Source: Danda and Mukhopadhyay (2022)

Understanding Sundarbans forests: Habitat, flora and fauna

Even besides the tigers, the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve (STR) possesses high biodiversity value, both in terms of flora and fauna. The STR is bound on the east by the international border with Bangladesh, towards its south lies the Bay of Bengal, and human settlements border the north and west. The core area extends up to 1699.62 sq. km and is devoid of any human settlement with no human activities allowed inside, while the 885 sq. km buffer zone allows tourism and fishing in a controlled manner. 

The vegetation is predominantly mangroves. Apart from the forest, there are intertidal mudflats, sandflats, sand dunes with typical dune vegetation, open grassland on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees. This unique mangrove ecosystem with its numerous ecological niches is home to over 1,586 faunal species, among which 15 mammals, eight birds, and 17 reptiles are included in Schedule I and II (rare and endangered) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Fourteen species have been listed in Appendix I of CITES.² It is also the only place where one finds mangrove or swamp tigers who, in all likelihood, are a different sub-species of tiger.

The distinctiveness of ‘swamp tigers’

Tigers in the Sundarbans represent the only population adapted to living in mangrove forest habitat. Their population in Indian Sundarbans is increasing steadily from 70 in 2010 to 76 in 2014, 88 in 2018, 96 in 2020, and 101 in 2022 (Qureshi et al. 2023).

There is widespread interest among scientists and conservationists regarding the origin of Sundarban tigers. With a leaner frame and lower body mass of 75-80 kilograms (kg) for Sundarban female tigers versus 100-160 kg for mainland ones, they are considered different from tigers in the rest of the country. This is commonly attributed to two factors: one, the main prey base in Sundarbans is the spotted deer (weighing about 50 kgs) vis-à-vis the much heavier Sambar, Blue Bull or Gaur in the mainland; two, dense forest, pneumatophores (the roots found in mangroves) and soft grounds make hunting challenging and so these tigers cannot compensate for small-sized prey with more frequent hunting – thus, the tigers are smaller because they have to make do with less food.

 Recent research by Vishnupriya et al. (2019), Singh et al. (2015) and Aziz et al. (2022) supports the consideration of Sundarban tigers as a separate management unit³, a nebulous construct. However, conservation management will need to focus on sustaining this representative tiger population adapted to mangrove habitat. Given the isolation of the population, to enhance genetic diversity, trans-boundary conservation efforts through exchange of individuals might be needed in the future. 

Vulnerable population, forest dependence, and human-wildlife conflict

Sundarbans is among the poorest places in the world with about 44% BPL (below-poverty-line) individuals, and half the population without any land holding. The primary means of livelihood is rain-fed agriculture, typically paddy cultivation, in plots that are protected from salt water by raised mud embankments. Despite copious rainfall of about 1,800 millimetres on average during the monsoon months, agricultural productivity is low. This is on account of repeated infringement of the embankments leading to incursion of brackish water, and the fact that no more than 20% of agricultural land of nearly 0.3 million hectares produces a second crop due to inadequate irrigation facilities. 

Sundarbans comprises 19 blocks and approximately 1,100 villages and is characterised by enormous intra-regional disparity. The varied vulnerability is mainly because of the tidal fluctuations, some villages see more frequent breach of embankments than others, resulting in brackish water inundation rendering affected land unproductive for multiple seasons. Such breaches do not affect more than a few square kilometres, the shocks remain largely unnoticed and do not result in any relief for the affected parties (Danda and Mukhopadhyay 2022). As one moves in the northwest direction, the villages closer to Kolkata are connected by metallic roads and are relatively prosperous. Some villages in the southeastern region can only be reached by ferry service. Among the vulnerable villages, there are 46 that are situated on the fringes of the forest. A large proportion of the population in these villages depends upon the forest for livelihoods – mainly fishing, crab and honey collection. For over two decades, all the victims were attacked by tigers when they had entered the forest for these activities. 

During 1985-2008, tiger attacks led to 664 deaths and 126 injuries. Referred to as “accidents” by the locals, almost all of these occurred inside the forests. Clearly, a 5:1 death-to-injury ratio indicates the aggressiveness of the tigers as well as severity of attack. A recent field survey by us reveals that over the last five years, almost all took place either on the forest edge, or mudflats – where the tiger is less likely to feel threatened by intrusion – rather than deep inside the forest. 

It is important to note that very few attacks have happened inside human settlements, with the last such recorded death being almost two decades ago. Instances of tigers straying into human settlements have considerably gone down over time, and there are no retaliatory killings on the Indian side of Sundarbans. Finally, the instances of tigers being poached in Indian of Sundarbans is also much less. 

Negligible retaliatory killings or poaching despite human dependence on forests and high human-wildlife conflict, makes Sundarbans an interesting case study for tiger conservation efforts. 

Tiger conservation in Sundarbans

Conservation efforts in Sundarbans require coordinated effort that ranges from cross-country cooperation involving India and Bangladesh to micro-managing resources for communities. The transborder cooperation is particularly important given that India's Sundarbans forests have reached 4.27 tigers per 100 sq. km – against the estimated carrying capacity of 4.68 tigers per 100 sq. km (National Tiger Conservation Authority, 2022).Further, given the uniqueness of the population, as well as the habitat and isolation, there is no possibility that tigers can be introduced from elsewhere should conservation efforts fail. Therefore, tigers in Sundarbans have to be sustained within the ecoregion. 

The history of conservation dates to the decades prior. Project Tiger in the 1970s was arguably the most important step in conserving the Sundarbans’ unique ecosystem because even though Project Tiger was solely focused on protecting tigers, a conservation technique known as the “ecosystem approach” was initiated which protected the entire forest. Here, conservation efforts required devising strategies that were not applicable elsewhere. Management plans and working plans have been developed regularly for the Sundarban Tiger Reserve, with clear-cut guidelines on what activities need to be regulated and restricted. These specifically mention that fishing can be freely carried out in tidal waters within the designated zone (outside the Sundarbans National Park), provided fishing boats are registered and annual registration fees and royalty are paid for using dry firewood. The focus of these plans was on preserving a viable population of tigers. At the same time, tourism was identified as a solution to the low economic growth and poverty in the area.  

Human-animal conflicts persist despite the Forest Department’s continuous efforts to minimise them. Currently the Forest Department alone has formed 25 eco-development committees (EDCs) and forest protection committees (FPCs) in villages on the STR’s fringes (Patel and Rajagopalan 2009) 

Since 2002, with the setting up of nylon fencing on the forest-facing side of human settlements, there has been a significant drop in tigers straying inside human settlements. The forest department makes periodical inspections and conducts maintenance. Recently, Bangladesh too is contemplating the same measure. Concerted efforts – such as solar street lighting on forest-facing roads – by other stakeholders and NGOs have also been important in preventing human-tiger conflict in the villages. Nevertheless, tigers do at times stray into villages and occasionally causing damages to cattle and other livestock. Efforts to capture the tiger and release inside the forest, as well as providing immediate and adequate compensation to the affected families, ensure that villagers promptly report such incidents to the forest department instead of retaliation. These initiatives have reduced human-wildlife conflicts inside human settlements tremendously. 

However, managing such conflicts inside the forest area poses different challenges. One, as a large part of the local population still depend upon forest produce, frequent permits and licenses have to be issued for fishing and crab collection for nine months in a year, and for honey collection during April-May.⁴  But there is pressure on the forest from illegal entrants. There are 22 land camps and seven floating camps that monitor and patrol the forests. The patrolling methods are modernised using e-/smart patrol and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). Apart from regular monitoring, innovative interventions like encouraging mud crab farming, and setting up bee apiaries within human settlements have the potential to reduce human footfall inside the forest. 

Conservation at STR also involves working closely with the local community. These are usually done with Joint Forest Management Communities (JFMCs) and self-help groups (SHGs). These interventions affect over 9,000 families in JFMCs and over 173 SHGs with 10 members each. Apart from providing an economic cushion, especially during shocks, such community interventions are extremely important for preservation of the unique habitat. JFMCs are also funded using 40% of the tourist revenues. The locals thus directly benefit from tourism – both as an economic activity as well as from the revenue share – enhancing their incentive to support conservation efforts.⁵

However, conservation efforts are not free of controversy. There is a widespread belief that the price of conservation is paid by the locals (Jalais 2007, 2010).⁶ However, the most frequent complaint by locals against forest authorities is regarding low number of boat licenses (BLC). Currently, there are around 140,000 fishermen in Sundarbans who are allowed to fish legally in the buffer zone using one of the 924 BLCs issued – clearly a number far less than what is needed to support the fishermen. Further, these licenses were issued many years ago, and are in need of review as some with untraceable owners are lying unused while many fishermen do not have permits. This results in many fishermen entering the forest illegally – both in boats without permits and in forbidden areas (core and sanctuary). 

Overall, the conservation efforts at Sundarbans have many distinct features, and clear operational rules for conflict management and compensation. However, the conservation efforts are often overwhelmed by a threat that is beyond the control of the forest officials and the locals – climate change. 

Sea level rise, climate change and threats to Sundarbans

Without doubt, the biggest threat to tiger conservation is habitat loss. Historically, tigers have lost 95% of their habitat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) pointed out that India lost 41% of tiger habitat between 1997 and 2015. Rapid economic progress coupled with climate change has been the main reason for such loss. Sundarbans too have experienced significant habitat loss. Ghosh et al. (2015) trace the change that the Indian Sundarbans have undergone over the last two-and-a-half centuries. Using a multi-temporal and multi-scale approach based on historical maps and remote-sensing data to detect changes in mangrove cover, they report significant mangrove loss. However, while, the habitat loss in Sundarbans is comparable to the rest of India, the causes and nature of habitat loss are distinct, requiring different interventions. 

For the entire Sundarbans, Hossein, Masiero and Pirotti (2022) employ the land use land cover (LULC) change approach over 45 years (1975-2020) and show dense forest was at its highest cover in 1975 and then decreased by an estimated annual rate of 1.3%. Although infrequent, additional forest areas have been generated. This is because new mudflats develop over time and grow into mangrove forests while some existing forests disappear. For the Indian Sundarbans, mangrove cover reduced by 20-21% over 50 years, from 2,307 sq. km (1968) to 1,851 sq. km (2016) (Sievers et al. 2020). However, unlike other Indian parks, the habitat loss in Sundarbans is not primarily caused by economic development or deforestation, which could have been countered by local strategies. Rather, the main factor is sea level rise and climate-related shocks such as frequent cyclonic storms. According to an estimate, during 2015-2020, the loss of area for 12 of the most vulnerable sea-facing areas was 3-32%. 

In Sundarbans, there is strong evidence that sea level will continue to rise beyond the year 2100 unless the increasing trend in current global average temperature is reversed (Rahmstorf 2007). The region is already about 1°C warmer and is projected to warm by up to 3.7°C by 2100 (CarbonBrief, 2018). Sea level rise causes a range of impacts for coastal areas, including submergence, increased flooding, erosion, salinisation, and ecosystem changes. 

Frequent cyclonic events are another form of severe impact of climate change. Over the last 120 years, there has been a 26% increase in the frequency of high to very high intensity cyclones in the region. Recently, the Ministry of Earth Sciences Report on ‘Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region’, stated that the Bay of Bengal region was struck by 41 severe cyclonic storms and 21 cyclonic storms in the month of May during 1891-2018. The figures jumped to 72 and 55 in November during the 127-year timeline. Over this period, the Arabian Sea coast was hit by relatively fewer cyclones. From 2000 to 2018, the Bay of Bengal region experienced 22 cyclones of which 16 belonged to ‘Category 4 or above’ (very severe and extremely severe). 

These effects of climate change pose a very serious threat to tiger conservation. The direct impact is the regular loss of large tracts of forest land to the sea, and the devastation caused by cyclones. With increased salinity, the effect is felt on vegetation, prey base, and eventually on the tigers. The tigers are pushed more northwards, increasing the chances of human-wildlife conflict. The indirect effect of climate risk is through the livelihoods of locals. Often people are pushed into forests for livelihoods following natural calamities, further putting pressure on the forest and increasing conflicts.  

Conclusion 

Tiger conservation in Sundarbans faces unique challenges and hence requires unique solutions. There are a few distinct reasons as to why the challenges are unique: One, this is an isolated tiger population in a mangrove habitat, implying that many models, although successful elsewhere, are not replicable here. Second, there is a lot of forest dependency among locals than in other areas,  leading to far many human wildlife conflicts. Finally, climate shock and global warming imposes tremendous costs to the local landscape hampering conservation effort. 

The fact that the number of tigers in the Indian part of Sundarbans have gone up steadily in the last decade is a testament to efforts by various stakeholders. In a unique ‘first of its kind’, a 108 km nylon fencing has successfully prevented straying of wildlife into human habitation by over 90%. When occasional straying happens, the forest department follows efficient and swift response to capture and relocate the tiger and adequately compensate the villagers if any damage is caused. For human wildlife encounters that happen inside the forest, adequate compensation is also paid in the event the individual ventured inside the buffer zone with adequate permits. Finally, the department and various other stakeholders are trying to create alternate livelihoods so that the human-wildlife encounters are minimised.

The current efforts seem to work fine and yet there is a threat that can overwhelm all efforts. Sea level rise and frequent climate shocks may very well spell doom for the habitat and its tigers, unless something is done about it immediately.

Opinions expressed in this post are that of the authors, and may not necessarily be those of WWF-India or their organisations, or of the I4I Editorial Board

I4I is now on Substack. Please click here (@Ideas for India) to subscribe to our channel for quick updates on our content.

Notes:

1. Sundarbans National Park in India was inscribed in 1987, and the Bangladesh side was inscribed in 1997.
2. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments, which aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species.
3. A ‘management unit’ represents populations within a species that are considered distinctive enough to warrant separate conservation management from that of other populations but not genetically distinct to merit sub-species differentiation.
4. Apart from fishing, every year between 500 to 1,000 licenses are given to honey collectors. Honey collectors usually go in groups of 10 individuals.
5. The number of tourists in STRs doubled from 140,000 in 2011-12 to 280,000 in 2022-23.
6. The Marichjhapi Massacre, in which post-partition Bengali refugees who had settled in the Sundarbans were forcibly evicted, is often presented as a testament to this. 

Further Reading

• Aziz, M. Abdul, et al. (2022), “Phylogeography of Panthera tigris in the mangrove forest of the Sundarbans”, Endangered Species Research, 48: 87-97. 
• CarbonBrief (2018), ‘Mapped: How every part of the world has warmed – and could continue to warm’, Infographic. 
• Danda, AA, S Gayathri, A Ghosh, J Bandyopadhyay and S Hazra (2011), ‘Indian Sundarbans Delta: A Vision’, Report, World Wide Fund for Nature.
• Danda, Anurag A and Bappaditya Mukhopadhyay (2022), “Mapping Local Level Climate Vulnerability”, Journal of Infrastructure Development, 14(1): 7-23   
• Ghosh Aditya, Susanna Schmidt, Thomas Fickert and Marcus Nüsser (2015), “The Indian Sundarban Mangrove Forests: History, Utilization, Conservation Strategies and Local Perception”, Diversity, 7(2): 149-169. 
• Hossain, Kanan Akbar, Mauro Masiero and Francesco Pirotti (2022), “Land cover change across 45 years in the world’s largest mangrove forest (Sundarbans): the contribution of remote sensing in forest monitoring”, European Journal of Remote Sensing. 
• Jalais, Annu (2007), “The Sundarbans: Whose World Heritage Site?”, Conservation and Society, 5(3): 335-342. 
• Jalais, A (2010), Forest of Tigers: People, Politics and Environment in the Sundarbans.
• Patel, V and R Rajagopalan (2009), ‘Fishing Community Issues in the Sundarban Tiger Reserve: A case study’, Report, International Collective in Support of Fishworkers. Available here.
• Qureshi, QY, V Jhala, SP Yadav and A Mallick (eds) (2023), ‘Status of Tigers in India - 2022: Photo-captured Tigers’, Summary Report, Tiger Conservation Authority and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. 
• Rahmstorf, Stefan (2007), “A Semi-Empirical Approach to Projecting Future Sea-Level Rise”, Science, 315(5810): 368-370. 
• Sievers, Michael, et al. (2020), “Indian Sundarbans mangrove forest considered endangered under Red List of Ecosystems, but there is cause for optimism”, Biological Conservation, 251: 10875. 
• Singh, Sujeet Kumar, et al. (2015), “Tigers of Sundarbans in India: Is the Population a Separate Conservation Unit?”, PLoS ONE, 10(4): e0118846. 
• Vishnupriya, Kolipakam, Shweta Singh, Bhawana Pant, Qamar Qureshi and Yadvendradev V Jhala (2019), “Genetic structure of tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) in India and its implications for conservation”, Global Ecology and Conservation, 20: e00710.