Yamuna River pollution: Problem of governance, not infrastructure

Despite decades of efforts to clean Delhi’s Yamuna, the river remains severely polluted. In this post, Naina Sharma contends that the situation is reflective of gaps in governance, rather than technical shortcomings. Outlining the problems with sewage management in the capital city and weak enforcement of applicable norms, she emphasises the rationalisation of institutional framework and collective public action to address the issues.

Delhi’s 22-km stretch of the Yamuna river remains notoriously polluted despite decades of cleanup efforts and though it constitutes only 2% of the river’s total length, it contributes up to 76-80% of its total pollution load. The river is effectively “dead” by the time it exits the city; dissolved oxygen is zero, and faecal coliform counts exceed 1.5 million MPN/100 ml¹ (the safe limit is 500) (Central Pollution Control Board, 2022-23). Despite nearly Rs. 8,000 crore spent since 1993 on various action plans, the Yamuna continues to be a foaming, toxic drain. The reasons lie not in technical shortcomings, but in persistent governance and institutional failures.

The Yamuna Action Plan (YAP), launched in 1993 with support from the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), has been one of India’s largest river restoration programmes. Across three phases, JICA extended loans of about Rs. 4,245 crore. In the first two phases (1993-2013), Rs. 1,514 crore was spent to build sewage treatment plants, lay sewer lines, and create a treatment capacity of around 942 million litres per day. Yet, many new sewage treatment plants were underutilised or dysfunctional as the existing sewer network could not channel sewage to them. Industries and unauthorised colonies carried on with the practice of discharging waste directly into drains leading to the river. Even as of 2025, over 500 unauthorised colonies and 160 villages in Delhi remain unconnected to the sewage grid (Primus Partners, 2023).

YAP Phase III, approved in 2011 with a Rs. 1,656 crore budget, aimed to construct new sewage treatment plants (including a plant at Okhla with a capacity of 546 million litres per day), rehabilitate older units, and build interceptor drains (JICA, 2017). Despite JICA’s additional Rs. 2,000 crore investment, delays in land acquisition, contractor mobilisation, and the Covid-19 pandemic stalled progress. By 2025, over Rs. 1,000 crore has been spent under this phase, yet the river remains heavily polluted. Out of Delhi’s 37 sewage treatment plants, 16-19 were recently found violating effluent norms² and some discharged water with faecal coliform levels 10 times higher than the safe limit (CPCB, 2021-22). Crucial works like interceptors³ for the Najafgarh and Shahdara drains are still incomplete; 22 major drains continue to carry raw sewage directly into the Yamuna.

Systemic sewage management gaps

Delhi generates about 3,600 million litres daily (792 million gallons per day) of sewage, however only 565 million gallons per day is actually treated; over 220 million gallons per day flows untreated into open drains (Economic Survey of Delhi, 2024). The city’s installed sewage treatment plant capacity is around 3,033 million litres daily (667 million gallons per day), but a large portion of this remains underutilised. This is primarily attributable to unsewered areas such as informal settlements, unauthorised colonies, and peri-urban villages.

The Najafgarh drain, Delhi’s largest, carries around 65% of the city’s sewage. Combined with the Shahdara drain, these account for roughly 84% of the Yamuna’s pollution load within the city. Without intercepting these flows or treating them adequately, cleaning the river is nearly impossible. Even when sewage reaches treatment plants, performance is an issue. A 2024 review found that only 14 of 37 sewage treatment plants met the revised effluent discharge standards. Several sewage treatment plants suffer from poor maintenance, intermittent electricity supply, and outdated infrastructure. The Delhi Pollution Control Committee recorded faecal coliform levels as high as 2,400 MPN/100 ml in treated water from the sewage treatment plant at Ghitorni. Some Okhla units have been non-operational for months.

A critical factor here is outdated or poorly maintained equipment, coupled with more stringent standards introduced for Delhi in recent years. The allowable Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)⁴ a key indicator of organic pollution, in treated effluent was tightened to 10 mg/litre (from the earlier 30 mg/litre) to account for the Yamuna’s low flow and assimilative capacity (Centre for Science and Environment, 2025). However, many older sewage treatment plants cannot meet these stricter norms without upgrades, which have proceeded slowly. Utilisation levels remain low despite the large capital outlay, reflecting the misalignment between infrastructure and service delivery.

Fragmented governance and weak enforcement

One of the root causes of Yamuna’s ongoing pollution is institutional fragmentation. Multiple agencies hold overlapping responsibilities: (i) Delhi Jal Board manages sewage treatment plants and sewerage, (ii) Municipal Corporations maintain many stormwater drains, (iii) Delhi Development Authority controls riverfront land, (iv) Delhi Pollution Control Committee and Central Pollution Control Board regulate effluent compliance, and (v) The Upper Yamuna River Board oversees upstream water-sharing.

This institutional maze has resulted in poor coordination and limited accountability. The Delhi Jal Board may build sewage treatment plants, but if sewer lines remain disconnected or storm drains continue to carry raw sewage, those efforts are nullified. Regulatory action is also limited in scope and continuity. Environmental authorities have penalised plants run by Delhi Jal Board for non-compliance, but enforcement rarely leads to long-term systemic correction.

Regulation of industrial pollution is similarly ineffective. A 2020 study of the Central Pollution Control Board found that all 10 common effluent treatment plants in Delhi’s industrial clusters failed to meet pollution norms; 14 of the 22 major drains entering the Yamuna were found carrying untreated sewage or industrial waste. Toxic foam, high ammonia levels, and dangerously high bacterial counts are visible outcomes and despite repeated directives to upgrade common these plants and penalise violations, little has changed on the ground. Penalties have been few, and compliance monitoring remains inconsistent. Laws exist, but their enforcement has been sporadic and non-deterrent.

A flawed investment logic

Between 2017 and 2022, over Rs. 6,857 crore was spent on Yamuna-related projects, including under the Namami Gange programme. Yet water quality has not improved. Much of the spending has focused on building new infrastructure (such as sewage treatment plants, pipelines, and riverfront amenities) while ignoring longstanding systemic weaknesses in the form of inadequate sewer coverage, non-functional existing plants, and lax monitoring.

This approach of ‘infrastructure without governance’ has defined Delhi’s river restoration story. Time and again, capital-intensive projects have taken precedence over maintenance, staff training, enforcement, or community engagement. Public relations efforts have often overshadowed actual environmental outcomes.

Policy priorities for a cleaner Yamuna

If the Yamuna is to be revived meaningfully, Delhi’s approach must shift from hardware expansion to systemic reform. Five key priorities emerge:

Upgrade existing sewage treatment plants

First and foremost, Delhi’s 37 existing sewage treatment plants must operate at full capacity and meet the latest effluent norms. Many require urgent repairs, staff training, and better operational budgets. Utilising this infrastructure should precede any new construction. Regular third-party audits and public disclosure of performance data can build accountability.

Ensure universal sewer connectivity

All colonies including unauthorised and slum areas must be linked to the sewerage grid. Where full connectivity is not feasible, decentralised solutions like faecal sludge treatment units or small-scale sewage treatment plants should be explored. Completion of the delayed interceptor drain network is critical. Simply capturing sewage from Najafgarh and Shahdara drains would dramatically reduce pollution.

Enforce pollution norms strictly

Industrial units discharging untreated effluents must face meaningful penalties, including closure. Common effluent treatment plants must be upgraded or shut down if they continue to underperform. Real-time sensors on major drains can aid surveillance and publishing pollution data online can help build citizen pressure and political accountability.

Rationalise institutional responsibility

A single, empowered Yamuna River Authority should be constituted, with control over planning, sewage treatment, and enforcement across departments. Alternatively, a high-powered task force with legal and financial autonomy could ensure cross-agency coordination. Without such reform, accountability will remain elusive.

Promote civic engagement

Citizen groups should be engaged in waste management, local monitoring, and awareness drives. This idea has been repeated many times – from school essays to government plans – but it will only make a difference when it is actually put into practice. Involving the public more closely with the river can instill a sense of civic responsibility. Further, highlighting the Yamuna’s cultural and religious value can help people feel more responsible for keeping it clean.

Way forward

Policymakers are beginning to acknowledge the challenges. Under Namami Gange, Rs. 4,400 crore has been sanctioned for Yamuna basin projects since 2015, aiming to create or rehabilitate treatment capacity of 1,837 million litres daily (Press Information Bureau, 2022). In early 2025, the central government launched a “mission-mode” initiative to make the water of the Yamuna bathing-quality, with decentralised sewage treatment plants and real-time monitoring. The Delhi government’s 2025-26 Budget earmarked Rs. 9,000 crore for water and sewerage infrastructure, including Rs. 500 crore for upgradation of sewage treatment plants.

While promising, these moves must be backed by institutional accountability and sustained enforcement. The Yamuna’s pollution is not an infrastructure problem – it is a governance problem. Its revival depends on political will, administrative reform, and collective public action.

The views expressed in this post are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the I4I Editorial Board.

Notes:

MPN stands for Most Probable Number, a standard method for estimating microbial concentration in water samples.
Effluent norms refer to standard limits for pollutants in treated wastewater, typically including Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and faecal coliforms.
Interceptor drains are constructed to divert sewage and polluted water from open drains to nearby sewage treatment plants, preventing untreated waste from directly entering the river.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) measures the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by micro-organisms to break down organic matter in water.